Mayan Civilization and ruins Free Essays

Since the dawn of mankind, there has always been civilizations have that have made a lasting impression on the world. There very few civilizations that have been that have achieved the term greatness associated with it and ‘Mayan civilization’ is one of the rare few. It can be dubbed as one of the longest serving civilizations of the ancient times as it is noted that it started around 1000 B. We will write a custom essay sample on Mayan Civilization and ruins or any similar topic only for you Order Now C but ended by 1500 A.D. It was considered as they were one of the most advance civilizations on the western hemisphere until the arrival of the Europeans. This civilization was located in Central America and was found from the north central down to the southern part of Mexico. This was a civilization that went through periodical changes in its living due to external factors associated with it. This Native American culture is noted in the history as one of the advance civilizations of that era. There has been a popular belief that has been associated with the Mayan civilization that it was an amalgamated empire. In actual terms it was a whole host of divided units having a common cultural background. The entire ‘Yucantan Pennisula’ had around 20 states which were all ruled by different sovereign leadership, but on an inventive logic, they were a nation on their own with religion being an important aspect of their lives. Since the Mayan civilization was spread on a large area, the geographical conditions for the civilization varied with extremities, which can adjudged from the fact they had volcanic mountains from the highlands in the south to porous limestone areas dominating the central and the northern regions of the civilization. Mayan civilization can be categorized into three categories, pre-classic period, classic period and post classic period. The entire culture has revolved and evolved around these three periods. The civilization had huge forests and because of the diversity of the topographical situation of the civilization, varied no of animals like the ‘caiman’, a fierce kind of crocodile to different kinds of monkeys was found. Mayan pre classic period This was supposed to be the period of formulation in which the population boomed and new innovative techniques were made for agriculture. The leaders were chosen from strong spiritual backgrounds and it was considered as that the lowlands of the civilization held acute importance because it was supposed to be a ceremonial centre. The following will explain the Mayan professional inclinations and techniques: ‘In the Preclassic period, they adopted intensive farming techniques such as continuous cultivation involving crop rotation and fertilizers, household gardens, and terraces. In some areas, they built raised fields in seasonal swamps. Their main crops included maize (corn), beans, squash, avocados, chili peppers, pineapples, papayas, and cacao, which was made into a chocolate drink with water and hot chilies. Rabbits, deer, and turkeys were hunted for making stews. Fishing also supplied part of their diet. Turkeys, ducks, and dogs were kept as domesticated animals. When they were not hunting, fishing, or in the fields, Maya men made stone tools, clay figurines, jade carvings, ropes, baskets, and mats. The women made painted pottery vessels out of coiled strands of clay, and they wove ponchos, men’s loincloths’ (Encarta) Mayans were very much influenced by spirituality and had gods for almost every thing that even included gods for rains, good harvest. As time passed by the study of astronomy became popular in that era leading to studies of astrology on the basis of sun moon and other planets. Major edifices were constructed then like ‘kaminaljuyu’ and ‘tikal’ were constructed which were pyramid shaped high temples, where the system of sacrifice was started to be used. More and more massive pyramids started building in that era and the priests started enjoying super powers. Women weren’t that important from political point of view and it was a very rare sight to see women on top chieftain positions. Mayan Classic period This was an era of the Mayan civilization that can be considered as its prime era and here the system of king and kingship started which had a system of the king’s family continuing as future leaders. There was also a hierarchical system in which the government functioned.   There was major research done in the field of medicine and writing was developed extensively. The subject of astronomy had become more enhance with calculative movements predicting rains to fortune to the cities.   This was the time when societies had turned into complex models the king was noted the highest figure after which there were the priests and then the nobles who mainly responsible for protecting land and attacking enemies. This was the time of more gore and violence and mini wars were constantly waged between one and other. What mad this era special was the Mayan civilization themselves started noting rituals and their history with their elaborative writing skills. The transition of power from generations to ethical rituals along with its architectural secrets was all jotted down on stone and wood. Later on folding tree books were made as they were more handy then carrying stones. Due to the high humidity and invasions, these books didn’t survive and only 4 books are known today, i.e., the Dresden codex, the Madud coded, the Paris codex and the Grolier codex. The learning also was limited to mostly priests and few nobles and a monopoly was played so that only few people could learn and use their knowledge on others. The writing also consisted of mostly pictures and pictography was first devised by Mayan civilization for learning purposes. This was also an important era that marked trade as an important aspect of the civilization. Sacrifice was an important aspect for the culture and the following would hard line the fact of Mayan civilizations involvement in sacrifices:‘Indian pictorial texts known as â€Å"codices,† as well as Spanish accounts from the time, quote Indians as describing multiple forms of human sacrifice. Victims had their hearts cut out or were decapitated, shot full of arrows, clawed, sliced to death, stoned, crushed, skinned, buried alive or tossed from the tops of temples. Children were said to be frequent victims, in part because they were considered pure and unspoiled. The first researchers tried to make a distinction between the ‘peaceful’ Maya and the ‘brutal’ cultures of central Mexico and But in carvings and mural paintings, he said, â€Å"we have now found more and greater similarities between the Aztecs and Mayas,† including a Maya ceremony in which a grotesquely costumed priest is shown pulling the entrails from a bound and apparently living sacrificial victim’ (Mark Stevenson). Mayan post Classic period This can be considered as a time when the decline of the Mayan civilization started step by step. Since the governments had become much segmented, there was more violence and war during that phase, where entire villages would get destroyed in the name of war. There was also the Toltec domination followed by Spanish invaders taking over Mexico by the early 16th century.   This was however the phase of having plastered walls and painted murals. Socially the civilization had peaked and it was mandatory for guests to bring in gifts while visits. Slave culture flourished in this era and slaves which were mostly people who were captured from wars were highly mistreated and often sacrificed after their masters dies, as they had an ideology that they would serve their masters in afterlife. Mayan Ruins Ruins of Mayan civilization can still be found it the entire peninsula. Their culture had so many architectural advancements that it is today possible to watch quiet a lot of their ruins and gather more information about them. Ruins like ‘the temple of the inscriptions’ in Mexico and the ‘palenque’ are very prominent ruins of the civilization. The former rises 75 feet and it is rested neatly over a hill and is one of the prime examples free standing pyramids. Another site in Mexico located in Coba, was built around 4 large lake structures and had been inhabitant for more than thousand years. The biggest pyramid of that site 120 feet and is known as Nohoch Mul. The following piece will explain the beauty and architectural genius of the civilization: ‘Miguel à ngel Asturias, named Nobel Laureate in 1967, wrote â€Å"Only Guatemala is comparable to itself,† describing it as â€Å"a land of natural dreamscapes†¦mysterious presences and absences.† Tikal, the largest known Mayan city, is incomparable in the same way; its size imposing and intimidating, its setting lush and teeming with wildlife, and with a mysterious and overwhelming atmosphere best described in the writing of Asturias’ Works Cited: 1)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Encarta, â€Å" Mayan civilization†. 2)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mark Stevenson, â€Å"Evidence may back human sacrifice claims†. http://www.livescience.com/history/human_sacrifice_050123.html 3)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Maya Ruins, â€Å"Photos of Tikal†. http://www.mayaruins.com/tikal.html 4)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://archaeology.about.com/od/archaeologic7/Ruins_of_the_Maya_Civilization.htm                      How to cite Mayan Civilization and ruins, Essay examples

The Moon Landing Conspiracy free essay sample

The first book about the subject, Bill Kaysing’s self-published We Never Went to the Moon: America’s Thirty Billion Dollar Swindle, was released in 1974, two years after the Apollo Moon flights had ended. The Flat Earth Society was one of the first organizations to accuse NASA of faking the landings, arguing that they were staged by Hollywood with Walt Disney sponsorship, based on a script by Arthur C. Clarke and directed by Stanley Kubrick. Folklorist Linda Degh suggests that writer-director Peter Hyams’s 1978 film Capricorn One, which depicts a hoaxed journey to Mars in a spacecraft that looks identical to the Apollo craft, may have given a boost to the hoax theory’s popularity in the post-Vietnam War era. She notes that this happened during the post-Watergate era, when American citizens were inclined to distrust official accounts. Degh writes: â€Å"The mass media catapult these half-truths into a kind of twilight zone where people can make their guesses sound as truths. We will write a custom essay sample on The Moon Landing Conspiracy or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Mass media have a terrible impact on people who lack guidance†. In A Man on the Moon, published in 1994, Andrew Chaikin mentions that at the time of Apollo 8? s lunar-orbit mission in December 1968, similar conspiracy ideas were already in circulation. Claimed motives of the United States and NASA Those who believe the landings were faked give several theories about the motives of NASA and the United States government. The three main theories are below. The Space Race The US government deemed it vital that it win the Space Race against the Soviet Union. Going to the Moon would be risky and expensive, as exemplified by John F. Kennedy famously stating that the United States chose to go because it was hard. A main reason for the race to the Moon was the Cold War. Philip Plait states in Bad Astronomy that the Soviets—with their own competing Moon program and a formidable scientific community able to analyze NASA data—would have cried foul if the United States tried to fake a Moon landing, especially since their own program had failed. Proving a hoax would have been a huge propaganda win for the Soviets. Bart Sibrel responded, â€Å"the Soviets did not have the capability to track deep spacecraft until late in 1972, immediately after which, the last three Apollo missions were suddenly canceled. However, the Soviets had been sending unmanned spacecraft to the Moon since 1959, and â€Å"during 1962, deep space tracking facilities were introduced at IP-15 in Ussuriisk and IP-16 in Evpatoria, while Saturn communication stations were added to IP-3, 4 and 14? , the latter having a 100 million km range. The Soviet Union tracked the Apollo missions at the Space Transmissions Corps, which was â€Å"fully equipped with the latest intelligence-gathering and surveillance equipment†. Vasily Mishin, in an interview for the article â€Å"The Moon Programme That Faltered† (Spaceflight, March 1991, vol. 3, 2-3), describes how the Soviet Moon program dwindled after the Apollo landings. Funding It is claimed that NASA faked the landings to forgo humiliation and to ensure that it continued to get funding. NASA raised about US$30 billion to go to the Moon, and Bill Kaysing claims that this could have been used to â€Å"pay off† many people. [23] Since most conspiracists believe that sending men to the Moon was impossible at the time, they argue that landings had to be faked to fulfill President Kennedy’s 1961 promise: â€Å"achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth†. 16] Others have claimed that, with all the known and unknown hazards. NASA would not have risked the public humiliation of astronauts crashing to their deaths on the lunar surface, broadcast on live TV. Vietnam War It is claimed that the landings helped the US government because they were a popular distraction from the Vietnam War; and so manned landings suddenly ended about the same time that the US ended its role in the Vietnam War. Moon Landing Hoax Claims Main Categories of the Moon Landing Hoax claims Number of people involved Photograph and film oddities Environment Mechanical issues Transmissions Missing data: Tapes Blueprints Technology Deaths of NASA personnel Stanley Kubrick involvement Primary source of this post: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia All Images Curtsey of NASA A Small Selection of the Apollo Program Photos†¦ Can you spot any oddities? Conspiracists devote much of their efforts to examining NASA photos. They point to oddities in photographs and films taken on the Moon. Photography experts (even those unrelated to NASA) answer that the oddities are what one would expect from a real Moon landing, and not what would happen with tweaked or studio imagery

The Life Of LOUIS PASTEUR Essays - Food Preservation, Food Science

The Life Of LOUIS PASTEUR Essays - Food Preservation, Food Science The Life of LOUIS PASTEUR Louis Pasteur was born on December 27, 1822, in D?le, a small town in France. He grew in a humble family and his father was a tanner. He graduated in 1840 from the College of Arts at Besancon and entered the prestigious Ecole Namale Supervieure, Paris, to work for his doctorate degree. He chose for his studies the then obscure science of crystallography, which was to have a great influence on his career. Pasteur entered the scientific world as a professor of physics at the Lycee of Tournon and started his research on the optical properties of crystals of tartaric acid salts. He found the two forms of this acid which could rotate the plane of polarization of light, one to the right and the other to the left. This was his first important discovery in crystallography, the phenomenon of optical isomers. Paradoxically it incited him to abandon the field. But it won the acclaim of the French Academy and Britain's Royal Society. Thus Pasteur became famous at the age of 26. Pasteur soon began researching the complexities of bacteriology. The prevalent theory of life at the time was spontaneous generation which states that certain forms of life such as flies, worms, and mice can develop from non-living matter such as mud and decaying fish. Pasteur disproved this theory with a simple experiment. He showed that microorganisms would grow in sterilized broth only if the broth was first exposed to air containing spores, or reproductive cells. His findings led to the development of the cell theory of the origin of living matter which states that all life originates from preexisting living material. In 1849, Pasteur became professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg, where he began studying fermentation, a type of chemical breakdown of substances by microbes. He served the rest of his career as Dean of Sciences at the University of Lille. Soon after his arrival at Lille, Pasteur was asked to solve the problems of the local industries, vinegar and silk manufacture. A producer of vinegar from beet juice wanted to know why the product was sometimes spoilt. On examining the juice microscopically, Pasteur observed that the contaminant, amyl alcohol, was optically active. This gave clear evidence that it was produced by a living organism. Pasteur then proposed a biological interpretation of the process of fermentation. He demonstrated that when no contamination by living contagion took place, the process of fermentation or putrefaction did not take place. Thus the celebrated techniques of Pasteurization, came into being, it could not only preserve wine and milk but drastically cut inflation in the surgeon's operating table. Today pasteurization follows closely the early techniques of Louis Pasteur. In the case of milk pasteurization, the milk is heated to 161?F for 15 seconds followed by a rapid cooling to 50?F or lower. This process removes any unwanted bacteria, but also kills any beneficial bac! teria and reduces some of the nutritive property of milk. The Franco-Prussian War opened an avenue to press his microbial theory of infection, he got the grudging agreement of the military medical corps to sterilize instruments and steam bandages. As a result, thousands of lives were saved. In 1873, Pasteur was elected to the French Academy of Medicine, a spectacular achievement for a person without a medical degree. Pasteur was now ready to move from the simpler forms of life in the microbial world to the diseases of the higher animals. The opportunity came through a devastating outbreak of anthrax, a killer plague of sheep in 1876. Pasteur tried to produce pure cultures, his objective was to fight the disease and not just to describe it. Pasteur had accidentally forgotten in a corner of the laboratory a culture of fowl cholera and noticed that it had lost some of its virulence. Then he vaccinated some chicken which resisted the disease. The same technique, after improvement, was applied against bacillus anthracis: sheep inoculated with the vaccine survived and the non-vaccinated ones died. A scourge that had crippling economic effects was brought under control. Simultaneously, the principle of immunization or the protection of the body through vaccines was discovered. In 1865, the silk industry of France faced an economic ruin by an epidemic among silkworms.

The Consequences of World War I

The Consequences of World War I World War I was fought on battlefields throughout Europe between 1914 and 1918. It involved human slaughter on a previously unprecedented scale- and its consequences were enormous. The human and structural devastation left Europe and the world greatly changed in almost all facets of life, setting the stage for political convulsions throughout the remainder of the century. A New Great Power Before its entry into World War I, the United States of America was a nation of untapped military potential and growing economic might. But the war changed the United States in two important ways: the countrys military was turned into a large-scale fighting force with the intense experience of modern war, a force that was clearly equal to that of the old Great Powers; and the balance of economic power began to shift from the drained nations of Europe to America. However, the dreadful toll taken by the war led U.S. politicians to retreat from the world and return to a policy of isolationism. That isolation initially limited the impact of Americas growth, which would only truly come to fruition in the aftermath of World War II. This retreat also undermined the League of Nations and the emerging new political order. Socialism Rises to the World Stage The collapse of Russia under the pressure of total warfare allowed socialist revolutionaries to seize power  and turn communism, one of the world’s growing ideologies, into a major European force. While the global socialist revolution that Vladimir Lenin believed was coming never happened, the presence of a huge and potentially powerful communist nation in Europe and Asia changed the balance of world politics. Germanys politics initially tottered toward  joining Russia, but eventually pulled back from experiencing a full Leninist change and formed a new social democracy. This would come under great pressure and fail from the challenge of Germanys right, whereas Russias authoritarian regime after the tsarists lasted for decades. The Collapse of Central and Eastern European Empires The German, Russian, Turkish, and Austro-Hungarian Empires all fought in World War I, and all were swept away by defeat and revolution, although not necessarily in that order. The fall of Turkey in 1922 from a revolution stemming directly from the war, as well as that of Austria-Hungary, was probably not that much of a surprise: Turkey had long been regarded as the sick man of Europe, and vultures had circled its territory for decades. Austria-Hungary appeared close behind. But the fall of the young, powerful, and growing German Empire, after the people revolted and the Kaiser was forced to abdicate, came as a great shock. In their place came a rapidly changing series of new governments, ranging in structure from democratic republics to socialist dictatorships. Nationalism Transforms and Complicates Europe Nationalism had been growing in Europe for decades before World War I began, but the wars aftermath saw a major rise in new nations and independence movements. Part of this was a result of Woodrow Wilson’s isolationist commitment to what he called self-determination. But part of it was also a response to the destabilization of old empires, which nationalists viewed as an opportunity to declare new nations. The key region for European nationalism was Eastern Europe and the Balkans, where Poland, the three Baltic States, Czechoslovakia, the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, and others emerged. But nationalism conflicted hugely with the ethnic makeup of this region of Europe, where many different nationalities and ethnicities sometimes lived in tension with one another. Eventually, internal conflicts stemming from new self-determination by national majorities arose from disaffected minorities who preferred the rule of neighbors. The Myths of Victory and Failure German commander Erich Ludendorff suffered a mental collapse before he called for an armistice to end the war, and when he recovered and discovered the terms he had signed onto, he insisted Germany refuse them, claiming the army could fight on. But the new civilian government overruled him, as once peace had been established there was no way to keep the army fighting. The civilian leaders who overruled Ludendorff became scapegoats for both the army and Ludendorff himself. Thus began, at the very close of the war, the myth of the undefeated German army being stabbed in the back by liberals, socialists, and Jews who had damaged the Weimar Republic and fueled the rise of Hitler. That myth came directly from Ludendorff setting up the civilians for the fall. Italy didn’t receive as much land as it had been promised in secret agreements, and Italian right-wingers exploited this to complain of a mutilated peace. In contrast, in Britain, the successes of 1918 which had been won partly by their soldiers were increasingly ignored, in favor of viewing the war and all war as a bloody catastrophe. This affected their response to international events in the 1920s and 1930s; arguably, the policy of appeasement was born from the ashes of World War I. The Largest Loss: A Lost Generation While it is not strictly true that a whole generation was lost- and some historians have complained about the term- eight million people died during World War I, which was perhaps one in eight of the combatants. In most of the Great Powers, it was hard to find anyone who had not lost someone to the war. Many other people had been wounded or shell-shocked so badly they killed themselves, and these casualties are not reflected in the figures.

Strategic Planning Report of Health Care Organization in the United Term Paper

Strategic Planning Report of Health Care Organization in the United States - Term Paper Example Strategic planning, therefore, has to be effective in an institution in order to deliver positive changes. The first component of strategic management is Situational Analysis. This is the initial point of designing a mission statement of an organization and how the mission will be achieved. Situational Analysis is vital in that it creates a leeway in aligning an organization in relation to its environment. Situational Analysis consists of a number of activities. First, the management has to consider the organizational context. This is the internal environment of the organization and how effective it will be. Secondly, Situational Analysis is directed towards evaluation of the external environment. This considers the neighboring people, organizations and other factors that are not controlled by the organization. Situational Analysis is critical to an organization as it is the basis of establishing an organization that is likely to record desirable performance. The second component in strategic management is Strategy Formulation. This involves designing and structuring a number of ways of running the organization (Sanderson and Stirk, 2012). This involves developing the company’s strategies and how they will function. This is done by determining the strength of the company and how the strengths will help in ensuring growth. In most cases, Strategic Formulation is split into three parts. This includes operational strategies which will be based on the operation and execution of the various organizational tasks. The second part is the competitive level. In this level, the organization looks for better ways of developing a competitive advantage over its rivals. Thirdly, there is the corporate level where the organization deems to please its corporate associates. This is essential as it is directed towards creating an appealing approach towards customers, employees and the corporate associates. The third component in strategic management is Strategy

To What Extent Does Shift Work Contribute to the Stress of Working as Essay - 1

To What Extent Does Shift Work Contribute to the Stress of Working as a Paramedic in Adelaide - Essay Example I can also access them when working in order to observe them in their natural working environment and get the feeling of what stress they are encountering as they work in their different shifts (both night and day shifts and the difference between these two shifts).   The sampling technique will be simple random. This is convenient because I will not be biased when conducting the field research and the results will ensure diversity in conditions, the gender of the paramedics and other important factors that other sampling techniques may overlook. I will randomly choose the workstations of the paramedics and then also randomly chose the paramedics I will be observing and those I will be interviewing and minimize biases and sampling error. I will carry out 3 observations (of each shift since the shifts are of 8hours), 7 different interviews (one of the interviews will be for the supervisor and who is also the one in charge of the shifts and organizes the duty calendar), while the other six will be for the different paramedics (randomly chosen). Lastly, I will carry out a focus group discussion that will include all the available paramedics and this will be aimed at getting the general feeling about the shifts not captured in the interviews. Some of the structured interview questions will include: what shift they currently are in? How long does it take before there is a rotation of the shift? Which of the three shifts is the toughest on both the physical and mental strength? Is there a difference health wise of the shifts (this includes having headaches, fatigue, anger, over or under eating, depression or drugs and substance abuse). The rest of the questions will be unstructured in order to get more explanations. One of the ethical problems I foresee is that the interviewees may refuse to be honest due to fear of lack of confidentiality and even anonymity even though this will be assured to them. The other is on the issue of getting voluntary participants to participate in the focus group and especially if the supervisor will be around watching them.  Ã‚  

Aquatic Invertebrates :: essays research papers

Outline for a report Aquatic Invertebrates Used to Classify Stream Health Ecosystem All things contained in an environment Water (input and output) Climate Daylight Plant life Clear Cutting Clear Cutting seriously effects all aspects of an ecosystem Maine is, per capita, the most heavily logged state in the continental U.S. Why Clear Cutting is Used Simple Creates a uniform forest to harvest in 40 years or so Easy to replant Cheap to Maintain (pesticides) Clear Cutting Impacts on Streams Clear Cutting seriously effects stream ecosystems The effects of clear cutting can be felt on stream ecosystems for up to 60 years The First Five Years After a Clear Cut This time period is actually beneficial in most aspects of stream animal (vertebrate and invertebrate) health The increase in CWD creates resources for life Nutrients good for aquatic species increase Nitrogen levels increase 40 times Potassium levels increase 11 times After Five Years The negative effects of clear cutting begin to be felt Increase in fast growing vegetation catches nutrients Increased solar radiation leads to increased water temperatures With no protection, water temperatures drop drastically at night After Five Years (continued) Packed soil and new vegetation lead to increased water input Leading to higher peak flows and washing out CWD and boulders (habitats) The stream widens and becomes shallower Overall homogenization of the stream occurs Second Growth After 30-40 years, second growth forests develop The stream ecosystem stabilizes Stream Invertebrates Stream invertebrates have adapted to the harsh stream environment Mayflies are flattened from top to bottom, allowing them to swim fast in low current areas Blackflies produce a substance to attach themselves to rocks when the current is strong Many aquatic insects have tarsal claws used to attach themselves to rocks to avoid the current Identifying Stream Quality with Stream Invertebrates These adaptations have led to species that easily survive in polluted streams and those that don’t Streams can be classified by the types of insects in them There are 3 different categories of aquatic invertebrates when referring to stream health Invertebrate Body Parts Healthy Stream Invertebrates Invertebrates that live in a healthy stream are classified as Group One Taxa Healthy streams contain high biodiversity Some examples are... Stonefly 1/2 to 1.5 inches long 2 tails 6 legs with hooked tips Caddisfly Up to 1 inch â€Å"Shell† made of mud sticks or small rocks 6 hooked legs Different Caddisfly â€Å"Shells† Riffle Beetle 1/4 inch long 6 legs Oval body covered with tiny hairs Mayfly 1/4 to 1 inch long 2 or 3 tails 6 large hooked legs Often confused with the Stonefly Moderately Healthy Stream Invertebrate Invertebrates that live in moderately healthy streams are classified as Group Two Taxa Moderately healthy streams support a lower number and diversity of species Some examples are... Crayfish Up to 6 inches long 8 legs, 2 claws Dragonfly Aquatic Invertebrates :: essays research papers Outline for a report Aquatic Invertebrates Used to Classify Stream Health Ecosystem All things contained in an environment Water (input and output) Climate Daylight Plant life Clear Cutting Clear Cutting seriously effects all aspects of an ecosystem Maine is, per capita, the most heavily logged state in the continental U.S. Why Clear Cutting is Used Simple Creates a uniform forest to harvest in 40 years or so Easy to replant Cheap to Maintain (pesticides) Clear Cutting Impacts on Streams Clear Cutting seriously effects stream ecosystems The effects of clear cutting can be felt on stream ecosystems for up to 60 years The First Five Years After a Clear Cut This time period is actually beneficial in most aspects of stream animal (vertebrate and invertebrate) health The increase in CWD creates resources for life Nutrients good for aquatic species increase Nitrogen levels increase 40 times Potassium levels increase 11 times After Five Years The negative effects of clear cutting begin to be felt Increase in fast growing vegetation catches nutrients Increased solar radiation leads to increased water temperatures With no protection, water temperatures drop drastically at night After Five Years (continued) Packed soil and new vegetation lead to increased water input Leading to higher peak flows and washing out CWD and boulders (habitats) The stream widens and becomes shallower Overall homogenization of the stream occurs Second Growth After 30-40 years, second growth forests develop The stream ecosystem stabilizes Stream Invertebrates Stream invertebrates have adapted to the harsh stream environment Mayflies are flattened from top to bottom, allowing them to swim fast in low current areas Blackflies produce a substance to attach themselves to rocks when the current is strong Many aquatic insects have tarsal claws used to attach themselves to rocks to avoid the current Identifying Stream Quality with Stream Invertebrates These adaptations have led to species that easily survive in polluted streams and those that don’t Streams can be classified by the types of insects in them There are 3 different categories of aquatic invertebrates when referring to stream health Invertebrate Body Parts Healthy Stream Invertebrates Invertebrates that live in a healthy stream are classified as Group One Taxa Healthy streams contain high biodiversity Some examples are... Stonefly 1/2 to 1.5 inches long 2 tails 6 legs with hooked tips Caddisfly Up to 1 inch â€Å"Shell† made of mud sticks or small rocks 6 hooked legs Different Caddisfly â€Å"Shells† Riffle Beetle 1/4 inch long 6 legs Oval body covered with tiny hairs Mayfly 1/4 to 1 inch long 2 or 3 tails 6 large hooked legs Often confused with the Stonefly Moderately Healthy Stream Invertebrate Invertebrates that live in moderately healthy streams are classified as Group Two Taxa Moderately healthy streams support a lower number and diversity of species Some examples are... Crayfish Up to 6 inches long 8 legs, 2 claws Dragonfly